Another installment in the series discussing the waters of the deep; especially as it relates to the telluric currents of the planet.
We are looking at the Telluric currents associated with water. I've posted the results of research on the water locked-within the core.
This falls-under the category of Associated Atmospheric Electromagnetics.
Even a condensed version is rather long to read. I've broken it into bite-sized pieces, hopefully.
There's not another way to put it: this is research that you should be familiar with, if you're serious about learning the deep dive inofrmation on atmospheric electromagnetics.
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Earth electricity: a review of mechanisms which cause telluric currents in the lithosphere*
ABSTRACT
Telluric currents are natural electrical phenomena in the Earth or its bodies of water.
The strongest electric currents are related to lightning phenomena or space weather.
Earth electricity can cause damage to structures, and may be useful for earthquake forecasting and other applications.
Thirty-two distinct mechanisms that cause Earth electricity are described, and a broad selection of current research is highlighted.
1. Introduction
Several phenomena that can generate telluric currents have been described in scientific specializations whose members may not communicate with each other regularly.
The study of this topic is both intriguing and challenging: Electrical signals do not carry much of a marker to indicate how they are generated, beyond magnitude, frequency, and polarization.
Attenuation and new phenomena caused by transmission complicate signal characteristics.
A wide range of possible applications for telluric data exists in different fields (seismology, hydrology, mineral prospecting, geothermal prospecting, planetary science, etc.)
For example, seismic electric signals may occur in a period leading to increased seismic risk, and understanding the causes of purported seismic electric signals is critical to characterizing any extant mechanism related to electricity and earthquake phenomena [Varotsos et al. 2011].
As another example, dissolved ions in groundwater increase rock conductivity, and the motion of the groundwater itself creates an electrical signal [Corwin & Hoover 1979].
This text is a brief selection of research in the subject, meant to be a resource for further study.
Along with artificial signals, Earth electrical phenomena are summarized in Table 1, and Table 2 lists telluric currents by frequency, mag-nitude and signal duration.
Thirty-two causes of Earth electricity are described in the text that follows. [Note: This has been condensed.]
Telluric currents were originally defined as natural electric currents passing through the Earth’s soil or rock layers or bodies of water, as opposed to its atmosphere.
Artificial currents were not included.
For the purposes of this paper, any electric current in a planet or on it may be classed as a telluric current.
4. Oceanic phenomena
4.1. Electrochemical effects in the ocean
In the oceans, different layers of water will be stratified by temperature and salinity, and each influences density.
Both of these gradients influence electrical conductivity, and create variations in electric currents in the oceans [Chave & Luther 1990].
The signals are low-frequency (30 kHz to 300 kHz) or lower, typically.
Voltages from temperature and salinity variations in the ocean are less than a few mV (silver/silver-chloride electrodes were used) and the differences in salinity and temperature were less than a few parts per thousand and a few degrees Celsius, respectively, between electrodes [Larsen1992].
The electrode material affects the observed voltage.
Internal waves (within the stratified ocean) are measurable electrically in their vertical component as gradients are crossed [Chave 1984]
4.2. Ocean transport induction
Electrical induction in the oceans occurs by three processes: transport of seawater across the geomagnetic field (treated in this subsection); the influence of GIC on saltwater, a conductor (treated in the subsections above dealing with GIC and TID); and variations in seawater due to variations in salinity and temperature (treated above.)
Bulk water transport was first measured electrically by Faraday in 1832, at the Waterloo Bridge with electrodes placed in the Thames River, but sunspot activity (unfortunately) masked the periodic influence of the Gulf Stream [Larsen 1992].
Induced voltage dueto transport of saline water has been observed successfully, with a magnitude on the order of 25 mV per kilometer, measured on a cable fitted with electrodes in theStraits of Florida [Larsen 1992].
The GIC (with peaks up to about 50 mV km-1 but with typical values of 10 to 20mV km-1) had been subtracted out of the data by hand.
The voltages occur at frequencies from 10-3.8 to 10 -7.0Hz and are incomplete, and tidal variation and other outliers create peaks around 10-5 Hz
4.3. Oceanic charging
Two sources of electric currents in the ocean already described in this text are: storm clouds charging the ocean surface (above); and processes to charge water strata in the ocean itself.
Electricity from both of these may be transmitted to the rock with which it is in contact via electrostatic induction [Cox 1981].
The oceanic lithosphere receives a quasi-static charge from the ocean.
Due to the high metal content of the rock, both electrostatic and electromagnetic induction will occur if major changes to electric current in the oceans or to the geomagnetic field also occur.
4.4. Metabolic electrochemistry in the ocean
The metabolic action of micro- and macrobiota in the oceans may contribute to an electrical signal that is measurable.
Bohlin et al. [1989] describes how fish are attracted to electric signals; this phenomenon might be related either to physiology or to food sensing.
Brahic [2010] describes how an extensive network of microbial electric currents may exist in oceanic mud.
Atekwana and Slater [2009] introduce the study of microbial geophysical signatures in a comprehensive manner;
biogeophysics is an emerging field, and more research is warranted.
6. Groundwater phenomena
6.1. Electrochemical effects in groundwater
As ionically-charged fluids travel in porous rock, an electric current is created by the motion of the suspended ions [Corwin & Hoover 1979].
This is the principle behind household chemical batteries, and is common in nature.
The electrochemical effect found in ore bodies, for example, is akin to commercial electro-chemical batteries in magnitude (a few volts) [Lile 1996].
While the chemistry of the fluid determines the voltage, the signal frequencies are controlled by the motion.
6.2. The electrokinetic effect
Just as the motion of ionically-charged fluids in porous rock creates an electro chemical current, so too the interaction of the charged fluid with the bounding rock creates a complementary charging in the rock itself.
At the fluid-rock interface, a single layer of adsorbed ions attracts a second layer of the opposite sign, and these are sufficient to create an electrical potential over a distance.
This so-called streaming potential, caused by an electrokinetic effect, involves electrostatic induction by moving ions.
Self potential is a combination of streaming potential (based on the electrokinetic effect) and of the diffusion of the ions themselves.
Typically, self potential is present in groundwater flows [Aubert & Atangana 1996, Birch 1998, Revil et al. 2003, Jardani et al. 2006], but can also be found in many geologic settings, such as sulphide ore bodies [Lile 1996] and other mineral deposits, including graphitic deposits [Stoll et al. 1995], and on volcanoes, where the phenomenon is due to hydrothermalactivity, changes in groundwater flow, and magma displacement [Zlotnicki & Nishida 2003].
In hydrothermal settings, streaming potential from electrokinetic effects is much stronger than associated thermo-electric effects [Corwin & Hoover 1979].
A streaming potential of up to 30 mV can be generated from a groundwater change of 50 cm, if the fluid resistivity is 102Ω m and the rock permeability is 10-12m2 [Jouniaux & Pozzi 1995]. Streaming potential variations occur, with pulses in amplitude of 15 to 40mV, and a frequency of 0.1 to 0.5 Hz [Jouniaux & Pozzi 1997].
6.3. Seismic-dynamo induction
Rock is displaced as seismic waves pass through.
Groundwater in the pore space is displaced as well, as are ions in the groundwater.
The motion of ions relative to the geomagnetic field creates circularly or elliptically polarized electric fields, with opposite orientations for positive and negative ions.
This effect was reported in 2009, and was observed both for artificial seismic waves from blasting and for natural seismic waves [Honkura et al. 2009].
The magnitude of the seismic-dynamo effect is on the order of µV to mV, and frequency depends upon the ions in the groundwater, with observed values between approximately 10 and 50 Hz. Cyclotron frequency is the name given for charged particles moving in circular motion perpendicular to a magnetic field.
Each charged particle has a cyclotron frequency based on its charge, mass and velocity relative to the magnetic field.
The observed seismic-dynamo effect reported in Honkura et al. [2009] shows electric frequencies that may be interpreted as resonances of the cyclotron frequency of particles and the geomagnetic field, with bicarbonate, chloride, sodium and calcium taken as constituents.
These vary in abundance by location, and account for differences of orientation in the observed electric fields.
6.4. Radioactive ionization
Radionuclides release energy as they decay, and that energy can ionize surrounding material.
Radon gas is one example.
The most common isotope of radon(222Ra) has a half-life of 3.8 days [Jordan et al. 2011].
Several thousand scientific publications have described the presence of radon as co-seismic with major events.
Radon at the Earth's surface ionizes particles in the air, and the motion of these ions creates atmospheric electrical phenomena linking the surface to the ionosphere [Pulinets 2007].
Co-seismic ionospheric anomalies might be attributed to the action of ions created as radon is released.
Studies of radon occurrence as an earthquake precursor often look for radon concentrations in groundwater [Jordan et al. 2011].
It is plausible to assume that radon ionizes other atoms in ground-water, and that the motion of these ions can create an electric signal.
Other radio-nuclides could do the same."
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* Reference: Daniel S Helman; ANNALS OF GEOPHYSICS, 56, 5, 2013, G0564; doi:10.4401/ag-6184
source link: ( https://www.academia.edu/10115613/Earth_electricity_a_review_of_mechanisms_which_cause_telluric_currents_in_the_lithosphere?auto=download&email_work_card=download-paper )
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